Inventory of Innovative Indoor Smoke
Alleviating Technologies in Nepal
3
The major tasks of rural Nepalese women are to collect
firewood, cook and care for their children and families.
Because of continuous depletion of forest resources,
women spend several hours a day on foot collecting
fuel wood and are thus vulnerable to all kinds of risks
including climatic and physical drudgery. In addition,
spending hours cooking in poorly ventilated kitchens
increases eye infections and other respiratory problems
(Winrock 2004).
Limited information is available on indoor air quality in
Nepal. A study in 18 villages by Davidson et al. (1986)
revealed that the total suspended particle (TSP) in a
room where firewood was used as fuel was 8,800
µg/m3, and the levels
368 ppb respectively
o(Wf CHOOa&ndNNep2OalwHeerealt2h1
ppm and
Research
Council 2002). The level of emission in Nepal is much
higher than the national and international standards.
The national ambient air quality standard for TSP and
PM10 for 24 hour average in Nepal is 230 and 120 µg/m3
respectively and 8 hour average CO standard is 10,000
µg/m3 (MOPE 2001). The WHO guideline for PM
concentration is 50 µg/m3. Similarly, the standards for
average CO concentration are 9 ppm for 8 hours, 26
ppm for 1 hour and 87 ppm for 15 minutes. The survey
conducted in high hills of Nepal in 2001 by Practical
Action found that the average concentration level of
tPhMa2n.5
in the hilly homes was
twenty times higher
1264
than
µg/m3 which
that of Air
is more
Quality
Standard set by WHO. In the same year, the levels of
CO concentration were measured as 320 PPM and 195
PPM for 15 minutes average in winter and summer
respectively which were also above the safe standard.
Hessen et al. also monitored 24 and 8 hours
concentration of TSP and CO in 34 HHs in Jumla using
traditional stove. It was found that the TSP concentration
was 8420 and 5000 µg/m3, and CO concentration was
13.5 and 23.42 ppm for 24 and 8 hours respectively
(Winrock 2004).
Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) is one of the leading
causes of death in Nepal. The rural Nepalese children
living in poorly ventilated conditions are 100 to 400 per
cent more likely to suffer from ARI than children living in
better indoor environment. Likewise, women who cook
using biomass fuel are nearly four times likely to suffer
from chronic bronchitis compared to their counterparts
in developed nations (Ban et al. 2004). About 3.13 per
cent people are affected by ARI with 22.8 per cent
affected children in Nepal. IAP is one of the major causes
of such high occurrence of ARI (http://www.moh.gov.np).
Chronic bronchitis falls in eighth position amongst other
diseases in Nepal. Pandey et al.(1987) examined 240
rural children less than two years of age for six months
and found a significant relationship between number of
hours spent near the fire (as reported by their mothers)
and the incidence of moderate to severe ARI cases. A
survey conducted in Jumla in 1981 revealed that the
mortality rate in 0 - 1 year age group is one of the highest
ever reported from anywhere in the world. The total
mortality rate due to ARI was 488.9 per 1000, and 333.3
per 1000. It has been reported that one of the various
reasons for high mortality rate could be respiratory
related infections caused by IAP (Pandey 2003).
An epidemiological study conducted in 1979 in a rural
community in hilly region of Nepal revealed a significant
positive correlation between the prevalence of chronic
bronchitis and average exposure time to IAP both
amongst smokers and nonsmokers. A house to house
survey in Sundarijal (north of Kathmandu) with a sample
of 3,258 individuals showed that 12 per cent of the
adults (>20 years) were infected with chronic bronchitis
and 3.1 per cent were associated with emphysema.
Similarly, 51 and 38 per cent of women had chronic
bronchitis and emphysema respectively. The study also
revealed that chronic bronchitis was three times more
common in smokers than nonsmokers (Winrock 2004).
A study carried out in four different areas of Nepal -
urban Kathmandu representing urban areas; Sundarijal
and Bhadrabas villages of Kathmandu district
representing rural hilly region; Parasauni of Bara district
representing plain region; and Chandannath of Jumla
district representing mountainous region revealed the
crude prevalence rate of chronic bronchitis at 11.3, 18.3,
13.1, and 30.9 per cent respectively (Pandey 2003).
The average life expectancy in Nepal is 62.6 years of
age (UNDP, Human Development Report 2007/2008).
Reduction in indoor smoke reduces respiratory related
diseases which can help improve the life expectancy of
people. Various organisations in Nepal are introducing
different types of technologies to increase fuel efficiency.
The invention of Improved Cooking Stoves (ICS), briquette
burning technology and introduction to chimney and
smokehoods along with the use of renewable energy
technology, such as solar cookers and bio-gas has
helped reduce indoor smoke considerably.
The negative effects on human health due to solid fuel
burning is serious and commands extreme attention
seeking substantial mitigation efforts from national and
local governments. The reduced level of lethal smoke
would lead to a healthier life for billions of people.
Therefore public awareness regarding the health risks
associated with prolonged exposure to smoke is crucial.
Poor people are unable to switch to cleaner fuel, such
as LPG, kerosene or biogas due to their economic
conditions. The international community, UNDP, and a